Dr. Eugen SAVA
National Museum of History of Moldova

Dr. Ion TENTIUC
National Museum of History of Moldova

Dr. Ana BOLDUREANU
National Museum of History of Moldova

The Tighina/Bender Fortress is one of the largest medieval bastions in the Prut-Dniester region. It is, however, one of the lesser-known fortifications that has not been studied systematically. The Tighina/Bender fortress, together with others situated on the right bank of the Dniester River – the fortresses of Hotin, Soroca, Old Orhei (Orheiul Vechi), and Cetatea Alba (Akkerman), formed an effective defensive system that protected the borders of the Moldavian Principality (Fig. 1).

The earliest mention of Tighina, as a settlement and as a customs post, can be found in the commercial privilege dated to October 6, 1408, given by Voivode Alexandru cel Bun to the Lviv merchants. Subsequently, the name of Tighina frequently appears in the documents of  the 15th and 16th centuries. According to some researchers, the place belongs to the category of settlements that were established before the Moldavian Medieval Principality was founded. Still, by the end of the 14th century the settlement (and customs) located on the Dniester River did not play an important role, since Tighina is not recorded along with Cetatea Alba and Hotin in the  „List of Russian Distant and Proximate Towns” prepared between 1387 and 1392.

The first attempt in establishing the age of the fortresses was made by historian Miron Costin (1633-1691), who assumed that they were built at different times by the „old Dacians”, the Romans, the Genovese,  or the Voivods. The scholar considered them to be old fortifications rebuilt by the country's voivods.

The Prince of Moldavia Dimitrie Cantemir (1673-1723), not touching upon the questions of Tighina’s age and its founders, treated it as a Moldavian fortress on the shore of the Dniester River that the Turks were not able to conquer.

The Moldavian documents that make reference to the locality of Tighina, beginning with the earliest, the above-cited 1408 Lvivian privilege, mention, along with the princely customs and passage, a sentry post (straja) as well. Among the documents written by Stephen the Great (1457-1504), the only one that makes reference to Tighina also talks about the sentry post (straja).

19th century scholars, having studied the information recorded in the preceding centuries have generally agreed that the Tighina Fortress was built in the 12th century by the Genovese, just as the Hotin and the Cetatea Alba Fortresses. For example, the military historian Aleksandr Zashchuk noted a strong Western architectural character of the inner citadel. Colonel S. I. Kornilovich wrote that „The Bender Fortress, by its Moldavian name – Tighina, has been won by the Ottoman Porte from the Moldavian Principality towards the end of the 16th century, together with the Bender kaza”[1].

A letter of voivode Stefan Petriceicu dated  March 30, 1673 can also be added to the above evidence. The letter published by Bogdan Petriceicu in Trajan's Column was addressed to the people of Genoa, in  an attempt to form an anti-Ottoman coalition; Tighina Fortress is mentioned in the text of the letter as the one that was previously owned by the Genovese. P. N. Batiuskov, however, concluded that the fortification was built in 1395 by Great Lituanian Duke Vitold.

In the 20th century, historian Nicolae Iorga wrote that the fortress located at the old Dniester passage already existed „towards the middle of the 16th century”[2]. The same opinion was expressed by Constantin C. Giurescu, who claimed that the old fortification in Tighina, probably made of wood and earth, had been taken into possession by the rulers of Moldova when, in 1370-1380,  the country's boundaries were extended to the shores of the Dniester River and the Black Sea.

The economical and political growth of the Moldavian medieval state, once the Golden Horde's authorities left the region, led to the establishment of a few princely customs located at the shoals of the Dniester River, as well as to the increase of importance of the „Moldavian commercial path” that run along the right bank of the Dniester River, going from Cetatea Alba through Tighina and Suceava, to Lviv, and the Hanseatic towns of the Northern Countries”[3]. In the Eastern region of the Moldavian Principality, the passages through the Shoals of Hotin, Soroca, Tighina, Rascu's Shoal and Voda's Shoal were the most well-known and the most traveled. Based on the analysis of the toponym, C. C. Giurescu has proved that the name of Tighina, in a form as it appears in early textual sources: Teageaneakeaciu (document from 6 October, 1408); Tegenekeciu (document from 18 March, 1434); Tiginakeaciou or Tegenakiciou (document from June 29, 1456) means „The Shoal of Tighina” or „The Passage of Tighina”. The word „checi” or „chici” is therefore nothing else but a common term that refers to a shoal or a passage. Such chicis are not rare within the Romanian land, especially on the shoals of the big rivers of the region.

Ion Nistor suggested that during the rule of Voivode Alexandru cel Bun the toll-collecting posts were already established in Tighina, where the Dniester river passage, the second in its importance after the Hotin passage, was located. Tighina, along with Cetatea Alba, Chilia, and Hotin is considered to be among the most important centers for communication with foreign lands, and these four places were also the most important commercial markets in medieval Moldova.

It should be noted that the first and only definite evidence pointing to the existence of a true Moldavian fortification or fortress (probably built of wood and earth) can be found in the Moldo-Polish Chronicle, dating back to the mid 15th century. Referring to the Ottoman conquests of 1538, it states that the Turkish Sultan Süleyman „had taken hold of the Moldavian Fortress of Tighina”[4].

From historical sources we learn that as a result of Süleyman the Magnificent's expedition of 1538, Tighina became a part of the Ottoman Porte's territory, forming, together with the adjacent villages (12 villages, according to  Dimitrie Cantemir or 18 villages, according to other authors), a distinct administrative unit, a sanjeacbeilic, that marked the boundary, together with Chilia and Cetatea Alba. It is assumed that after southern Bessarabia was occupied, the Ottomans built a stone fortress on the bank of the Dniester, in order to fortify the occupied region.

To date, there are no direct documented sources about the foundation of the fortress. The only known evidence is Süleyman's chronogram, or „tarich” – an inscription on a marble slab above the entrance gate of the citadel that was visible until 1882. The slab had the engraved Hijri year of 945 on it, which corresponds to the years of 1538-1539. The indirect evidence is present in a letter of Ieronim Laski  addressed to Ferdinand I of Hungary dated March 13, 1541. It makes a reference to „the newly built Tighina fotress”[5]. Turned into an Ottoman kaza, Tighina was renamed to Bender, a Turkish term of Persian origin, meaning „river port; quay; landing place”[6].

Scholarly works on the origin and development of the Tighina Fortress have not offered any credible hypothesis. Historian Ştefan Ciobanu, who dedicated an important study to the fortress, noted that „the passage of Tighina had determined the appearence of a human establishment in this locality, and, later, to the creation of a defense point of the shoal – a fortress”[7]. The author also pointed out that „we cannot find any information to support the idea that Tighina would have been founded by the Moldavians”[8]. Therefore, Ştefan Ciobanu concluded: „Thence, the Tighina Fortress was built by the Turks...”[9].

According to Dinu Poştarencu, in Tighina, „following the order of Suleiman, and using the local resources and the labor of the peasants from the surroundings, instead of the Moldavian citadel a fortress was built, quite mighty for the time”[10].

Ion Chirtoagă claims that in order to eliminate the Tartar danger that had greatly increased in the late 15th century (1480-1490), Stephen the Great had continued to fortify the defense system on the shores of the Dniester River. For this purpose, at the end of the 15th  century, next to the old place of the Moldavian Tighina, Stephen the Great built a small fortress of wood and earth; it was aimed to keep the Tartars, who had participated in the 1478 and 1484 campaigns against Stephen the Great, from invading Moldova through the Tighina passage. Between 1538 and 1539, at the location of the old fortress, the Turks built a stone fortress.

A peculiar hypothesis has been offered by Gheorghii Astvataturov, who believes that the fortress (the citadel) was built in the first half of the 15th century by the nomadic Turkic tribes of the Yuruks on the Tartars' order. It is known, however, that the nomadic Yuruks, along with other non-sedentary peoples of the Ottoman Empire, were not engaged in duties typical for the sedentary people. We should also recollect the 1477 Code of Laws (kanuname) issued by Sultan Mehmed II Fatih that stipulated that „the Eskings, the Yuruks, the Chatals and the Yamaks are spared from paying the tithe of rice and straw, from the building of fortifications, and others...”[11].  

According to Andrei Krasnojon,  the Turkish fortress of Bender was built in six stages, three of which were the most important: 1. In 1538, a small castle (citadel) was built; 2. In 1584, the structure was surrounded by a moat and a system of towers and curtains; 3. In 1619, the  construction of the external bastions was finished.   

Architect Valentin Voitehovski suggested that the Tighina Fortress was a Moldavian fortification rebuilt by the Ottomans. According to the author, Moldavian architectural elements can be traced in the fortress’ architecture. „By observing the walls of the citadel, we have discovered that vertically they are formed out of two layers that points to the existence of the fortress before the Ottoman invasion. The second layer was added, as it can be seen, by Sinan's builders”[12]. V. Voiţehovski pointed out to the three periods in the evolution of the medieval fortification. During the first stage, the thin walled citadel was built by the Moldavian voivods at the end of the 15th century; at the next stage dating back to 1538, the Ottomans fortified the place by backing the walls of the Moldavian citadel; during the final stage, in the 18th century, the outside walls or the outside fortress was built.

Mariana Şlapac considers C.C. Giurescu's hypothesis as the most plausible one accepting that there was a Moldavian wooden and earthen sentry post in Tighina that was subsequently replaced, by the Ottomans, with a strong stone fortress. 

Archaeological excavations next to the stone fortress’ citadel conducted on a limited scale in 1969 by Ion Hîncu revealed the remains of several residential complexes and the defense moat of the 15th-16th centuries. They also resulted in the discovery of a presumably wooden and earthen fortification built before the mid-16th century, at the location where later the bastion of the stone fortress had stood.

According to Ion Hîncu, on the northern side of the stone citadel are „remains of a fortress’ moat and ravelin, as well as a house,  where artifacts of the 15th-16th centuries were found”[13]. The surface of the fortress’ yard, round or ovoid-shaped, was covered with a layer of ashes and burnt materials. Ceramic and metal objects bore the traces of fire[14]. In 1538, the stone walls of the actual citadel have been built on the remains of this wooden and earthen fortress.

* * *

Under the conditions of the permanent stay of military units (Russian, Romanian, Soviet, Transnistrian) inside the fortress during the whole modern and contemporary periods, it was unrealistic to conduct any scholarly exploration of the fortification (Fig. 2).

The changes that have taken place in the last few years, including those related to the partial evacuation of the military units from the fortress, made it possible to access documentation on the fortress, except the classified one. The surface explorations have revealed that all components of the medieval fortification are in an advanced state of disintegration, and that it requires immediate actions and a complex interdisciplinary research in the fields of archaeology, architecture, and history; a process of restoration and preservation of the fortress will be based on the outcomes of the research. The fortress’ state of disintegration calls for urgent measures that should rescue the structures from destruction and that should result in the future museification of the spectacular edifices.  One of the beneficial consequences of the detailed exploration and museification of the Tighina/Bender Fortress will be inclusion of this place in the national and international tourist itineraries (Fig. 3).

Even a brief analysis of  publications related to the origin and development of the Tighina/Bender fortress once more points to the fact that the fortress at the old shoal of the Dniester has not been comprehensivly studied. A number of unresolved issues remains: there is still no satisfactory, well-documented and scholarly proven hypothesis regarding the initial period of the fortress; the main reasons for the need of building a fortified complex in the size and span of the Tighina Fortress; the stages of the erection of certain fortified structures, etc. The answers to these questions require a complex interdisciplinary research conducted on the territory of the fortress on a large-scale basis, with the involvement of various profile specialists (Fig. 4).

A complex multidisciplinary research, as well as conservation and restoration of the site as a whole, with subsequent museification of the various components of the fortress and the adjacent areas should include the following four steps:  

1. Performing  architectural measurements of the structures and exploring the broad perspectives of restoration of the Tighina/Bender Fortress;
2. Conducting the archaeological expertise for the performance of systematic archaeological researches;
3. Conducting historical research in order to understand the fortress’ formation in different historical periods.
4. Creating the Tighina/Bender Fortress Museum and turning it into a national and international tourist destination (Fig. 5).

            In order to fulfill these goals, it is necessary to implement the next general objectives:

1. Prevent the process of continious decay and destruction of the architectural remains (walls, defense towers, moats and bastions, underground communication channels, and others) by carrying out preservation activities;
2. Perform the restoration of the fortified ensemble applying the latest scientific techniques and methodologies;
3. Museification of the defensive complex of the Tighina/Bender Fortress.

The comprehensive exploration of the medieval Tighina/Bender fortification should be performed by qualified specialists and experts in various areas of medieval history, archaeology, architecture, and art.  The international team should include professionals from  the Republic of Moldova, Romania, Russia, Turkey and Ukraine in the first place.

The architectural part of the project and the execution of the planned activities imply researching in libraries and archives of the Republic of Moldova, Romania, Russia, and Turkey, and others, in order to identify new graphical materials regarding the Tighina/Bender Fortress; performing an evaluation and an objective analysis of the technical condition of the fortress' architectural structures; conducting thorough topographical measurements; implementing the projects aimed at the restoration of all parts of the fortification; carrying out complex restoration works.

The archaeological part of the project includes several distinct stages, among which are: studying the archival materials and documentation connected to archaeological exploration made in the Tighina/Bender fortress during the previous years; conducting archaeological surveys within the limits of the fortress and in its immediate environs, for the determination of  the areas having potential for the immediate and long-term investigations; carrying out current archaeological surveys coordinated with colleagues from the Bender Fortress Museum, in order to study stratigraphical layers in different areas of the fortress; the laboratory processing of artifacts discovered during archaeological investigations;  writing annual excavation reports.

The goals of the historical research will be concentrated on the history of the archival documents related to the Tighina/Bender Fortress and the neighbouring areas; the analysis of the numismatic material found on the territory of the fortress and in its close proximity; on the study of epigraphic sources; on the systematic and detailed analysis of the heraldic and sphragistic materials; on the research of cartographic materials and sources.

This multi-task project will be implemented in several successive, long-term phases, with some actvities performed simultaneously (such as collecting archival materials; measuring the existing structures and creating architectural plan of the fortress; conducting  the magnetometer and geophysical surveys, etc.).

* * *

The museification of the Tighina/Bender Fortress and its inclusion in the national and international infrastructure of the cultural heritages and tourism will be oriented towards the following goals: to prepare the thoroughly selected materials for the subsequent exhibitions; to develop a collection management system for the museum; to allocate and equip special premises for storage of the museum collections, with environmental conditions in accordance with the museum standards; to identify certain areas inside the fortified complex suitable for the installation of exhibits; to establish laboratories for preservation and restoration of objects from the museum holdings; to determine places inside the fortress for the installation of the museum structures for touristic use (such as pavilions, concert stages, cafés, restrooms, etc).

Archaeological investigations will survey the territory around the Tighina/Bender Fortress for  better understanding of stratigraphy of the defensive construction, and for the obtaining new data that will facilitate the restoration of its parts and reveal more information on its historical evolution. Thus, we proffer the following general objectives that will be accomplished with application of up-to-date equipment: the surface survey and topographic measurements, in order to restore the general planimetry and get characteristics of the layout of different architectural structures in the fortress; the studying of the territory inside and outside of the fortress walls, by taking geomagnetic samples and carrying out archaeological excavations; the archaeological research of the accessible complexes that could offer a general picture of stratigraphic situation, the construction techniques, and building phases; the determination of historical layers, the depth of foundations, and the previously excavated areas, as well as detection of new objects for future investigation; archaeological excavations of the bastion complexes within the limits of the fortress, in order to get better understanding of their structure and stratigraphy; the removal of the dump materials and clearance of the surface after excavations, where restoration and museification works will be carried out; the presentation of the results of historical and archaeological research in a Final Archaeological Report that will constitute a part of the Final Report on the Tighina/Bender Fortress mustidisciplinary project.

The main specific objectives focus on: the establishment of the planimetric and chronological evolution of the fortress; the determination of technical characteristics of the presently visible structures and their planimetric reconstruction; the recognition of the main construction levels of the fortress; the identification of disappeared structures based on their excavated remains and on archival documents, and their planimetric reconstruction; the presenting of data in order to determine the most accurate restoration of structures inside the Tighina/Bender Fortress.

References

• Costăchescu M., Documente moldoveneşti înainte de Ştefan cel Mare, vol. II, Iaşi, 1932, 630-631.
• Miron Costin, Letopiseţul Ţării Moldovei. De neamul moldovenilor, Bucharest, 1979, 214-215.
• Giurescu C.C., Tîrguri sau oraşe şi cetăţi moldovene din secolul al X-lea pînă la mijlocul secolului al XVI-lea, Bucureşti, 1967.
• Тихомиров М.Н., “Список русских городов дальних и ближних”. In: Исторические записки, 40, 1952, 214-259.
• Защук А., Материалы для военной географии и военной статистики России. Военное обозрение Бессарабской области. Sankt-Petersburg, 1963, 145.
• Батюшков П.Н., Бессарабия. Историческое описание. Санкт-Петербург. 1892, 39;
• Берг Л.С., Бессарабия. Страна-Люди-Хозяйство, 1st issue: Petrograd, 1918; 2nd issue: Chişinău, 1993, 54.
• Nistor Ion, Istoria Basarabiei, Chişinău, 1991, 45.
• Cantemir Dimitrie, Descrierea Moldovei, 1975, 37.
• Guboglu Mihail, Inscripţia sultanului Suleiman Magnificul în urma expediţiei în Moldova (1538/945). In: Studii. Revista de istorie, Bucharest, IX, 1956, nr. 2-3
• Maxim Mihai, Teritorii româneşti sub administraţie otomană în secolul al XVI-lea. In: Revista de istorie, nr. 8, 1983, p. 809.
• Chirtoagă Ion, Tighina, In: Destin românesc, 1994, nr. 3, p. 111-112; Idem, Târguri şi cetăţi din sud-estul Moldovei (secolul al XIV-lea – începutul secolului al XIX-lea), Chişinău, 2004, 107.
• Аствацатуров Г., Бендерская крепость. Bender, 2007, с. 47.
• Красножон А. В., Бендерский фортификационный комплекс XVI-XVIII вв. In: Stratum plus, nr. 6, 2011, 221, 250.
• Войцеховский В. А., К вопросу о периодизации строительства крепости в Бендерах. In: Материалы Третьей научно-технической конференции Кишиневского политехнического института, Chişinău, 1967, 189-190.
• Şlapac Mariana, Cetăţi medievale din Moldova (mijlocul secolului al XIV-lea – mijlocul secolului al XVI-lea), Chişinău, 2004, 100.
• Hîncu I. Gh., Vetre strămoşeşti din Republica Moldova, Chişinău, 2003, 411.